What was it about? What were the goals?
Neoclassicism was a complete rejection of Rococo – visually, ethically, socially, etc. They wanted their work to be serious and important, not frivolous or silly. It wasn’t supposed to please you, it was supposed to impress you. In design, neoclassical artists rejected graceful ornamentation and asymmetry of form, instead going back to the same stark simplicity and symmetry of the renaissance (i.e. Michelangelo).
Neoclassical art promoted ideas of the time in which it was made, the Age of Enlightenment. This was a time of science and reason, encouraging people to think logically and to observe the natural world in order to learn and better oneself. They emphasized clarity of line, as used by the baroque artist Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665), because they saw line as logical while colour was too emotional. They illustrated stories from ancient Greece and Rome where ethics and reputation mattered, with virtues such as bravery and sacrifice, not simply living for pleasure.
A bit of historical context:
There are a couple simple ways to think of Neoclassicism: that it was a rejection of the monarchy in favour of a democratic revolution, and that it rejected Romantic notions of love and emotions, in favour of enlightenment logic. The problem is, it’s not that simple. For one thing, neoclassical artists had a lot of romantic notions. Secondly, the most important Neoclassical artists started their training under a monarchy, and got money for their training straight from the king, whom they supported. An artist who supported revolution, as David did, had to do so secretly.
He joined the most extreme faction of the revolutionaries, the Jacobins. These were the leaders who decided to kill the king and queen of France. And, when the revolutionaries turned on the Jacobins, David was one of the lucky few they didn’t kill immediately, instead imprisoning him in, of all places, the Louvre. As the French revolutionaries spread their fight across Europe, they found a hero in their new general Napoleon, and he recognized David’s talents, released him, and commissioned him for several paintings, signifying Napoleon’s rise as the new emperor of Europe.
Okay, so why did these artists look to ancient Greece and Rome for inspiration? Well, it had to do with ancient politics and philosophy, notions of nobility and heroics––the Greeks were all about heroes, and David saw Napoleon as “mon héros”. The Greeks and Romans used democracy to grow and expand for hundreds of years. They didn’t suffer kings. Plus, new archaeological excavations in Pompeii made it fashionable. For the first time Europeans could see how the ancient Romans lived, with all the buildings and artwork preserved. The greatest philosopher of the period, Johann Winklemann, was also an archaeologist who studied Greek and Roman art. He’s the one who first divided ancient art into different periods. Wealthy aristocrats went on “grand tours” through Italy to view these ancient wonders. It led to a new movement in neoclassical decorative design and art.
The underlying philosophy of the period:
Like with the Romantics, these artists felt they could teach and inspire people by providing them with morally upright images, telling stories of virtue. Neoclassical artists revered reason and logic in their stories, using heroic examples––people who did the right thing. These artists idealized their subjects (made them look beautiful) because, like the ancient Greeks, they saw a perfectly proportioned, athletic body as a symbol of moral virtue.
Was it simply copying Michelangelo or Poussin? How was it different?
Many of these artists, including David, travelled to Italy to copy from Michelangelo, Caravaggio, and others. Still, it’s fair to say that neoclassical art does hold some differences that distinguish it. Neoclassical artists picked and chose their favourite works from classical antiques, the renaissance, and the Baroque, and blended styles. One can see the anatomy of Michelangelo mixed with the light and shadow of Caravaggio, the costumes of Poussin, and so on. The results usually capture a moment, frozen in time. There’s not the same sense of movement as in Rococo painting. The poses feel like poses. Despite the emphasis on natural figures, few of the works really feel natural––there’s this otherworldly monumentality to the scenes. It’s a form of theatre, of idealization and nostalgia. In sculpture, there’s a higher level of polish and delicacy than is normally present with Michelangelo (excepting the Pieta). The muscles and proportions aren’t so exaggerated. Neoclassical sculptures are lighter, softer, and more refined––like that of Bernini, but without all the action. They’re more introspective.
Was it great?
In general, absolutely. There’s a great deal of power and drama to these artworks. Neoclassical artists had a specific goal in mind, and they achieved it. You can argue over the merits of their ideas–– patriotism over love, idealizing the tyrant Napoleon––and you can criticize the work itself as cold, sterile, frozen, unnatural, unnerving, sometimes cloying, even silly. But, even at its most ridiculous (Napoleon as the god of war) it’s still technically amazing. And, it’s worth noting how evocative their works can be, despite favouring reason over emotion. There is also a great selection of neoclassical sculptures by lesser known artists at the Louvre that is underrated and worth studying.
How was it represented in other arts?
Neoclassical architecture was immensely popular all across Europe and Britain, even coming to America (Canova even carved a sculpture of George Washington). Greek architecture was used to design homes, churches, museums, and so on. In Paris, Napoleon commissioned the Triumphal Arch and the Pantheon in this style, signifying his new empire. Besides this, the movement spread into furniture design (often labelled as ‘empire style’), Wedgwood ceramics, fashion, etc. Neoclassical literature was a big hit, with satirists like Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope, who referenced classical stories in their works.
Some leading figures:
Angelica Kauffman (1741-1807)
Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) – The leading figure of the movement
Antonio Canova (1757-1822) – sculptor
Antoine-Jean Gros (1771-1835)
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780-1867)
Jean-Louis Ernest Meissonier (1815-1891)
Frederic Leighton (English, 1830-1896)
Lawrence Alma-Tadema (English, 1836-1912)
Godward, John William (English, 1861-1922)
Some of the most famous artworks of the time:
'Oath of the Horatii', by Jacques-Louis David, in 1785.
This painting shows three brothers pledging to fight Rome’s enemies, the Curatii of Alba. Rather than go to war, Rome and Alba chose to send three champions each to fight instead. Of the three brothers, only Publius survived, killing all three Curatii. To the right, the women of the Horatii weep – their family had been friends with the Curatii, and one sister, Camilla was engaged to one of the three enemy brothers. After the battle, Camilla cursed Rome so that Publius, in anger, killed her himself. The painting represents the importance of duty and loyalty over personal feelings––it’s supposed to be a virtue.
Although this scene had been painted before, this new style was revolutionary. The modelling of figures is clear and precise. The wispy Rococo brushstrokes are gone––you can’t even see brushstrokes. The colours are muted, the poses of the men are straight and rigid as they, and the rest of the scene stand in flat profile, like a Roman frieze. The composition is divided into three arches, symbolizing the three brothers, with the vanishing point converging on the swords in the centre. The work emphasizes order, balance, and stability, a visual metaphor to explain the importance of the characters defending their home.
'The Death of Socrates', by Jacques-Louis David, 1787
Here, Socrates has been found guilty and his punishment is to drink a cup of poison. He could have fled, but chose to drink the cup in order to teach a lesson to his students, who sit with him, on the importance of honouring the law. In this painting, Socrates doesn’t fear death, believing in an afterlife. David changed this story a bit to add drama. He removed many people from the scene to make it simpler. While Plato was a young man at the time, he’s portrayed here as the old man sitting at the foot of the bed.
'Psyche Revived by Cupid’s Kiss', by Antonio Canova, 1787
This is a scene from The Metamorphoses of Apuleius, in which Cupid brings Psyche back to life with a kiss. It’s considered one of the greatest neoclassical sculptures.
'The Death of Marat', by Jacques-Louis David, 1793.
Marat was a book publisher who supported the French revolutionaries. He was killed by an assassin in his bath––a visitor who had asked to interview him, but then took out a knife and stabbed him. Her name was Charlotte Corday, and, although she also supported the revolution, she did not follow Marat’s extreme views. During her trial, she called him a monster.
David’s painting of the event uses Christian symbols to portray Marat as a martyr. The pose mimics many Pieta depictions of Christ. David emphasized the knife wound, similar to that in Christ’s side during the crucifixion. In this image, Marat is idealized. He didn’t look this good in real life, he had a skin disease that required medicinal baths. The setting and drapery in the room is simple. There is nothing ornate to suggest he was rich or materialistic. The way he was painted is clear and sculptural, giving a sense of stillness, and nobility, similar to Greek sculpture.
This work isn’t simply a memorial to Marat, it’s a call for a new social order, with a new contemporary story, a new secular martyr (the revolution sought to do away with the church), and even started a new calendar. In David’s signature, we don’t see 1793, but “year two” as in the second year of the revolution.
'Napoleon Crossing the Alps', by Jacques-Louis David, 1800-1.
This painting shows Napoleon on horseback, leading his soldiers up a mountain. The work commemorates Napoleon’s victory over Austria at the battle of Marengo. The horse rears on two legs as Napoleon points, telling us, the viewers, which way to go. He and his horse fill the canvas, dominating the view. The strong diagonal lines of the horse and mountain are counterbalanced by the clouds on the right. Napoleon’s name is carved into a rock, next to Hannibal and Charlemagne––a list of famous commanders who likewise led armies over the Alps and on to victory. It’s a dramatic image of a powerful emperor, riding a fiery horse over dangerous terrain. It’s also a lie. Napoleon actually followed his troops over the Alps, a couple days later, and rode in on a mule (much more practical for rough terrain). This painting is exactly the kind of propaganda Napoleon loved. This painting was first commissioned by the Spanish King Charles IV, but Napoleon loved it so much he ordered three more, to be hung in different parts of his empire. David completed a fifth to hang in his studio.
'Cornelia, Mother of the Gracchi, Presenting her Children as Her Treasures', by Angelica Kauffman, 1785.
This scene of a mother presenting her children serves as a moral lesson for the viewers. A visitor has come to show off her latest present, a gold necklace. She then asks Cornelia if she has anything comparable. Cornelia answers by presenting her children. Cornelia is a role model of virtue, and as a result her children, Tiberius and Gaius, grew up to be successful politicians and champions of the common citizen.
'The Repentant Magdalene', by Antonio Canova, 1794-6.
This sculpture shows Magdalene living alone as a hermit, dressed in rags, after the death of Jesus. Her pose, clothing, and body show her not as a calm, peaceful, idyllic figure, but as a humble, grieving, and suffering woman. The work was originally made in Venice, but a politician there sent it to Paris as a gift to Napoleon. It was very popular, partly as it showed France’s return to the Catholic church, after a decade of bloodshed as the revolutionary government separated from the church, took back all the church’s lands, and killed countless priests and nuns. The sculpture coincided with a new pact between Napoleon and the Pope. This Magdalene was also popular for her grief at the loss of Jesus, a pain and sorrow many French citizens felt, for the loss of so many loved ones, first during the revolution, and then the Napoleonic wars.
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